The English forces were not a large presence, but they were experienced in battle and superior in arms. They assumed power in a relatively short time. Henry meanwhile, was somewhat uneasy with the independent power base his barons were developing. In 1171 he came to Ireland himself to assert his power, claiming sovereignty over Norman and Irish alike. Pope Adrian IV endorsed Henry's lordship, and the conflict between the English and Irish intensified.

B

y the middle of the thirteenth century, Norman rule had expanded to about two thirds of the country. The English brought feudalism into Ireland, they divided the land into counties and established walled towns throughout the country. Many of the structures built by the Normans still stand today. One of the most impressive of these is King John's Castle in Limerick City. This imposing fortification was constructed on the orders of Henry's son, as an administrative center for the southwest. In the east, Dublin became the administrative center for English rule.

       View the Historic Site Profile of King John's Castle.

Through the following decades English influences continued to be imposed on government, language and the local culture in general. Where these changes cause the greatest conflict was in the area of religious faith. A royal decree which forbade any Irishman from serving as bishop inspired outright defiance. Over time England was distracted by other conflicts, and the Irish took back much of the country beyond Dublin. This 'unruly' region became known as 'beyond the Pale.' With the devastation of the Black Death plagues in the 1340s, and several years of lost harvests many of the lands which were in British hands become unmanageable. In this environment Irish resistance began to reform into more organized bodies of rebellion.

I

Dun Angus, an Iron age fortification with its back set to the far west cliff of Inishmore. A certain identification of its builders remains elusive.

The intention of the statutes was to strengthen England's hold upon its shrinking holdings within Ireland. To this end, they were very limited in their success. What they did strengthen was the resolve of opposition to English claim on Ireland. The next offense to Irish liberty was the implementation of Ponyning's Law, which effectively crippled the Irish Parliament. Under this decree, it was illegal for members to pass legislation or even gather without the permission of the King of England.

Iron age sword,

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ny hope of organized rebellion to the plantation policy was thoroughly crushed by the English forces under Cromwell. Nowhere was the sense of dread despair more evident than at the siege of Drogheda. Here, in one of history's darker episodes, This grim figure reveals the depth of his religious fanaticism and outright hatred of the Irish. After the garrison of the town had surrendered, Cromwell had over 2,000 of them brutally executed. He joyfully celebrated the deed in his journals, guiltlessly proclaiming himself the agent of God's will. Throughout the continuation of his campaign, Irish families were forced from their land, whole towns destroyed and tens of thousands of people were ruthlessly slaughtered. By the end of Cromwell's campaign, Protestants in Ireland, about a fifth of the population, owned more than four fifths of the country's land.

English rule over the Irish was severe, and at its worst forbade Irish Catholics to own land, practice their faith publicly, build churches or to bear any type of arms. These policies forced the Irish to be tenants on land in their own country. Poor harvests many times prevented farmers from paying the high rents, and often forced them to be evicted. It would not be until the eighteenth century, that an Anglo-Irish ruling class was able to repeal many of these penal laws.

Cathedral of St. Patrick on the Rock of Cashel,
just outside Cashel, county Tipperary

To many Irish, there was a glimmer of hope during the late seventeenth century, with the acension to the English throne of Catholic King James II. The Dutch Protestant William of Orange, his son-in-law by marriage, opposed James claim to the throne. Viewing Ireland as a staging ground from which to regain control of the English monarchy, James attempted to reclaim Ulster and gain a sizable army in return. James success was not swiftly achieved, allowing William to organize a sizable army in Ulster's defense. The conflict led up to the decisive battle at the Boyne river in July of 1690. After a prolonged exchange, James forces fell back and supported his retreat. His hopes of regaining the throne now lost, the king fled to France.

Even with the Vikings gone, Ireland was not without strife. The country fractured into petty kingdoms as ambitious regional rulers vied for control. In a move aimed at unifying the land, the great warrior Brian Boru assumed the title of High King in the year 1002. But national unity was not to be. Family and clan warfare continued for another one hundred fifty years. King would be King - by sword alone.